Fire Safety & Avoid Deny Defend

Fire Education Essentials

The fire safety information provided here is based on the latest findings and public education initiatives from the FSRI – Fire Safety Research Institute, a division of UL Research Institutes. I’ve personally completed every available online training course offered by FSRI, and have carefully selected the most practical, actionable knowledge for civilian use.

You won’t find outdated or oversimplified tips here—only science-backed, real-world strategies for keeping yourself and others safe.

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WHAT IS FIRE?

Fire is a chemical reaction that happens quickly, emitting both heat and light. Fire needs four
components to exist. Fuel is material that will burn. Heat warms the fuel to its ignition temperature.
Oxygen sustains combustion. Subsequently, a chemical reaction occurs. Together, these components
create and sustain, fire but take away any of these components and the chemical chain reaction will
not be able to occur and therefore the fire will extinguish.

FUEL

Fuel is any substance that sustains combustion. To support flaming combustion, fuels must be in
a gaseous state. Before combustion can occur, a solid fuel must pyrolyze and a liquid fuel must
undergo vaporization. In the gaseous state, no other processes are needed to sustain combustion.

Solid

A state of matter where the molecules have a fixed shape and volume and molecules do not
move unless acted upon by heat or a chemical reaction

Liquid

A state of matter where the molecules do not have a fixed shape, but do have a fixed volume.
The chemical bonds are weaker and more distant than solids.

Gas

A state of matter where the molecules do not have a fixed shape nor volume and will expand to
take the shape and volume of the container or enclosure it occupies.

OXYGEN

If we provide oxygen to a fuel-rich fire, the fire will grow and spread. If we remove oxygen from a
fire, we interrupt the chemical chain reaction and the fire will go out. Ventilation is the circulation of
oxygen in a space and can occur naturally or as a result of fire department intervention. Ventilation
will cause the fire to grow, so it is imperative to coordinate ventilation with suppression to successfully
achieve fireground objectives.

TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is a significant factor in fires. Heat transfers from object to object and always moves
from the higher-temperature object to the lower-temperature object. There are three types of heat
transfer:

conduction, convection and radiation.

COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY

Fire is a chemical reaction that occurs in the presence of fuel, heat, and oxygen. When fuel comes in
contact with heat, it can change states of matter. In order for combustion to occur a material must
be in a gaseous state. When thermal decomposition, or pyrolysis, occurs the solid or liquid material
will produce fuel gases. Combustion occurs between a fuel and an oxidant, and will continue as long
as there is a supply of fuel, heat, and oxygen to support the chemical reaction.

STAGES OF FIRE DEVELOPMENT

There are two models of fire development: fuel-limited fire development and ventilation-limited fire
development. Both models of fire progression are based on four stages of fire development: ignition,
growth, fully developed, and decay. A fire can go through these stages multiple times depending on
the fire conditions.

Key Concepts

Fuel-Limited Fire

A fire in which the heat release rate and growth rate are controlled by the
characteristics of the fuel when adequate air for combustion is available.

Ventilation-Limited Fire

A fire in which the heat release rate or growth is controlled by the amount of
air (oxygen) available to the fire.

Ignition

The process of initiating self-sustained combustion.

Growth Stage

The stage of fire development where the heat release rate from an incipient fire has
increased to the point where heat transferred from the fire and the combustion products are pyrolyzing
adjacent fuel sources or areas

Fully Developed Stage

The stage of fire development where the heat release rate has reached its peak
within a fuel load or within a compartment based on available fuel or ventilation

Decay Stage

The stage of fire development within a structure characterized by either a decrease in
the fuel load or available oxygen to support combustion, resulting in lower heat release rates in the
fire area.

Fire Extinguisher Guidance

When—and When Not—to Use One

Fire extinguishers are a critical tool—but only under the right conditions. According to the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), extinguishers should be used only during the fire’s ignition (incipient) stage, when the flames are small, contained, and early in development. Attempting to use an extinguisher beyond this stage can be dangerous and ineffective

Step 1

PULL

Pull the pin. Hold the extinguisher with the nozzle pointing away from you and release the locking mechanism.

Step 2

AIM

Aim low. Point the extinguisher at the base of the fire.

Step 3

SQUEEZE

Squeeze the lever slowly and evenly.

Step 4

SWEEP

Sweep the nozzle from side-to-side.

Help people decide when to use a fire extinguisher

Consider providing a checklist to help people prepare to use a fire extinguisher. For example:

Have I alerted others in the building that there is a fire?
Has someone called the fire department?
Am I physically able to use a fire extinguisher?
Young children and older adults should not use fire extinguishers.
Is the fire small and contained in a single object or to a surface (like a pan or a wastebasket)?
Am I safe from the fire's toxic smoke?
Do I have a clear escape route?

Use a fire extinguisher when all of these questions are answered “yes.” If you're unsure about whether it is safe to use a fire extinguisher, and for all other situations, alert others, leave the building, and call 911 from a mobile or neighbor's phone.

UNDERSTANDING FLASHOVER

Flashover is one of the most rapid changes on the fireground and generates the most significant
increases in heat, smoke, and hazard. Flashover occurs when surfaces exposed to thermal radiation
reach ignition temperature and fire spreads rapidly throughout the space.

7 Ways to Prevent a Fire

According to the American Red Cross, here are 7 things you can do to prepare for a home fire.

Install the right number of smoke alarms. Test them once a month and replace the batteries at least once a year.
Teach children what smoke alarms sound like and what to do when they hear one.
Ensure that all household members know two ways to escape from every room of your home and know the family meeting spot outside of your home.
Establish a family emergency communications plan and ensure that all household members know who to contact if they cannot find one another.
Practice escaping from your home at least twice a year. Press the smoke alarm test button or yell “Fire“ to alert everyone that they must get out.
Make sure everyone knows how to call 9-1-1.
Teach household members to STOP, DROP and ROLL if their clothes catch on fire.

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ALERRT: CRASE / Avoid Deny Defend

I'm a certified trainer in the Avoid, Deny, Defend® (ADD) model, a nationally recognized civilian response strategy developed by the ALERRT Program (Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training). Used across schools, businesses, and public institutions, the ADD framework trains everyday people to respond effectively during active threat situations. One of the biggest barriers to survival in these moments is normalcy bias—the instinct to downplay danger and assume everything is fine. This hesitation can be deadly. Through training, individuals learn to recognize threats early and act decisively

Normalcy Bias

Definition

Normalcy bias is a cognitive tendency to downplay or disbelieve warnings of danger—believing life will continue as usual—leading to delayed or absent action. People fail to grasp the seriousness or likelihood of a negative event.

Three Stages of Disaster Response

– A refusal to believe a threat is real. People often remain calm, talk to others, gather belongings, and only begin reacting after substantial delay—even under clear signs of danger.
– Mental processing: weighing evidence, checking credibility of information, seeking understanding—often leading to further hesitation.
– Finally, a critical juncture when a person takes definitive action—like evacuating or defending themselves—without further deliberation.

Impact on Emergency Response

Normalcy bias hinders quick, effective reactions in crises:

Denial stage, compromising safety (e.g., 9/11 observations show many waited minutes before evacuating)
Deliberation, they seek more info or confirmation—an excuse influenced by attachment to existing beliefs and “analysis paralysis”
Decisive Moment, reducing reaction time and effectiveness.

Examples

: “It’s just another storm”—denial and deliberation cause delay in evacuation.
: Early in COVID-19, many assumed everything would be normal soon, delaying precautions like social distancing.

Why It Happens

Key psychological drivers behind this bias include:

Attachment to current beliefs
Need for information /analysis paralysis (“milling”)
Social influence (especially when others lack urgency)
Resistance to change

Overcoming Normalcy Bias

1. Awareness

Recognize the bias and its stages (Denial → Deliberation → Decisive Moment) to anticipate delays.

2. Proactive Planning

Create and rehearse emergency plans to shorten decision time at the Decisive Moment.

3. Situational Awareness

Stay alert to changes and cues that a threat may not be normal.

4. Seek Alternative Perspectives

Consult experts or trusted sources to challenge assumptions and avoid group complacency.

5. Stress Inoculation

Engage in drills, simulations, or “what-if” scenarios so that responses become more intuitive and faster.

6. Training to Interrupt Deliberation

Practice recognizing the transition from deliberation to decisiveness

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